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168 32. 235. (bibliography: pp235-238) 33. This is one of obvious constraints to Clausewitz’s concept of “total war”. 34. For a useful description of these types of war, cf. Gray Postmodern War, and Ignatieff’s Virtual War. 35. Glimmerings of virtual war were seen in the Gulf War (1990-91), but truly it came into its own in the Kosovo conflict (1999) when a casualty-free action was waged by the USA through the assistance of remote devices. 36. Economically, the terrorist attacks did not “push” the USA into a recession; the recession was already inevitable given the misallocation of resources produced by preceding monetary expansion.

51—a proposal certainly reflected in the works of Robert Ardrey and Konrad Lorenz. By “extended reason” I mean the capacity to imagine, conjecture, formulate beliefs and arguments. Animals are rational beings too in the sense that they behave in a rational manner according to their preferences; hence the distinction here between rationality and extended rationality. 138 (original emphasis). When pressed by extremely violent circumstances, the ability to hold on to that mental life of learned rules and codes of conduct becomes tenuous, as is described anecdotally in various memoirs: “A very sad thing happened while we were there—to everyone.

Hence, just as there is a gap between the animal and human kingdoms, a gap arises between animal warfare and human warfare. This reduces the explanatory content or possibility of strong causal analogies between animal behavior and human behavior. To some extent we are glorified primates, but humans are vastly more intricate social creatures capable of complex speech, extended reason,8 self-reflection, conscientious activity, and ethical behavior which complicates the nature of war above the level of animalistic behavior.